On the Relationship between Literature, History, and Human Beings Essay

To assume that an object belongs to a particular set entails that an object possesses similar characteristics to all the other objects in the set. In most cases, two or more sets have a tendency to intertwine with one another since some objects in another set have similar characteristics to the objects in a different set. This intermingling of different objects with different characteristics is apparent in the field of literature. Literature here ought to be understood as a written art form that allows the creation of new worlds. Such a conception of literature is based on the assumption that literary texts are fluid and malleable in nature due to the vast meanings that may be attributed to their content. This view of literature is based on the Reader-Response Theory which assumes that literary texts may only exist within the reader’s consciousness (Murfin and Ray 426). Murfin and Ray claim, â€Å"With†¦ the literary work as a catalyst of mental events comes a redefinition of the reader†¦ (as) the passive recipient of those ideas that an author has planted in a text (427). The field of literature is thereby characterized by the intermingling of different objects with different characteristics since although some works adhere to a specific form, the meanings attributed to these works change in line with the reader’s conception of a their content. In line with this, the following discussion posits that all forms of literature, regardless of their form and content, are united with one another due to their dependence on the human mind. This is another way of stating that literature is connected to human existence due to its dependence on human production as well as on its dependence on human interpretation. Such an assumption is based on several propositions. First, literature, as an art form, reflects the social and political conditions during a particular period in history, whether on the period of its production or on the period of its reproduction. Second, the function of human consciousness in determining the meaning of a work is evident in both the author and the reader’s association of a meaning to the form and content of a text. Finally, the function of human consciousness in unifying not only human experience but also all forms and types of literary works is apparent as the production and reproduction of a work manifests the creation of new meanings and hence new ways of understanding a text. These assumption merely show that the production, reproduction, and reception of a literary work throughout history involves a dialectic process wherein a literary text serves as the main referent for the opposing meanings given to a specific event and? or concept located in a literary work. Eagleton specifies the interconnection between literature and history as she posits that the definition of the concept literature continually evolves along with the social and political conditions in a particular period in history. She claims, â€Å"[W]e can drop once and for all the illusion that the category â€Å"literature† is objective in the sense of being eternally given and immutable†¦Literature reflects†¦ the ways in which what we say and believe connects with the power-structure and power relations of the society we live in† (Eagleton 10-14). Eagleton emphasizes the dependence of the association of the values and meanings used in the analysis of literary works to a predominant belief in a particular period in history. A concrete example of this can be seen in the case of Gilman’s â€Å"A Yellow Wallpaper. † Gilman’s text was only considered as an important literary work in the later part of the 20th century which may be associated with the sociopolitical conditions that allowed the equality of both men and women and hence the recognition of woman writers and their works during that time. Another example of this is apparent in the distinction between Formalism and Modernism in literature. Formalists believe that all literary works can be analyzed in terms of their form (Eagleton 3). They argued that form precedes content as they conceived of the former as a mere expression of the later, that being â€Å"content was merely the ‘motivation’ of form† (Eagleton 3). As opposed to this, the Modernists argued that the content was more important than the form (â€Å"Brief Guide to Modernism†). The Imagists, a sub-group of Modernists, for example, wrote in free verse as opposed to the restrictive forms of sonnets or villanelles (â€Å"Brief Guide to Imagism†). This distinction between Formalism and Modernism shows the evolution of the concept literature. Given that no fixed meaning may be attributed to the term literature; one may claim that a fixed meaning was presented in relation to the term in the initial part of the discussion. It is important to note however that the meaning given to the term above merely emphasizes the fluidity of literature. Such is the case since a description of literary works as texts that enable the creation of new worlds merely provides a loose definition of the term as opposed to the rigid definition provided by the Formalists. In other words, the way literature is conceived in this discussion merely emphasizes the reader’s relationship to a work, which is the reader’s ability to identify new world or new meanings in the combination of a text’s form and content. Although the looseness of the definition specified above may seem to consider all forms of written works as literary texts, it is important to note that the definition is still grounded on what is considered to be an art form. Regardless of this definition, the point which is being emphasized here is the dependence of the term literature on the sociopolitical conditions of a period. As can be seen in the case of Gilman’s text as well as in the case of the Formalists and Modernists, the way one understands literature is dependent on the predominant beliefs during the period of a literary text’s production or a literary movement’s existence. With the relationship between literature and history mentioned above, it becomes evident why human consciousness occupies a primary role in determining the meaning of a literary work. Human consciousness provides the link between literature and history as the human mind interprets specific beliefs and associates them with the content of literary works. In the case of literary critics, the human mind interprets the predominant beliefs regarding the structure of objects in society and creates a connection between this order and the form and content of literary works. In other words, the human mind ascribes meanings to literary texts. In the same manner that human beings create a bridge between history and literature, literature also creates a bridge between human beings. This relationship between history, literature, and human beings can be seen in Albee’s â€Å"The American Dream† and DeLillo’s White Noise. In the case of Albee’s play, his discussion of the American dream not only shows the association of a specific male stereotype to the dream but its association to superficial ideals. The stereotype is apparent as the Young Man, which represents the American dream, is describes as a â€Å"clean-cut, Midwest farm boy type, almost insultingly good looking in a typically American way† (Albee 112). He was further described to possess a â€Å"good profile, straight nose, honest eyes, (and a) wonderful smile† (Albee 112). This description of the Young Man shows the dependence of his existence on a specific setup in society wherein â€Å"lights fill up†¦as he steps into†¦(a) room† (Albee 112). The Young Man’s existence, as a representation of the American dream, is dependent on a society wherein external appearance is lauded in comparison to a person’s character. Note for example that the Young Man is also described to be incapable of loving anyone else (Albee 115). He is thereby an individual who is devoid of establishing a loving connection with other human beings. By representing the Young Man’s existence to be dependent on a superficial society, Albee paves the way for different ways of reading the text. One, for example, may focus on the Young Man’s representation of the Hollywood ideal in America and its connection to the American dream. In addition, one may also focus on the Young Man’s superficial existence. Albee’s text, in this sense, is fluid since no specific interpretation of the work may be given. Its interpretation is dependent on the reader and? or audience of his play. In a similar manner, DeLillo’s White Noise is also a text open to interpretation. The text also discusses an aspect of life which is also common to all men, that being death. It is a truism that all human beings are bound to die. DeLillo’s novel associates death with the rapid developments caused by the electronic age. Consider, for example, his description of white noise in the following passage, â€Å"[T]raffic washes past, a remote and steady murmur around our sleep, as of dead souls babbling at the edge of a dream† (DeLillo 4). The novel’s title, White Noise, may be understood as a representation of death. Death, like white noise, is a sound that permeates human existence. They are both representations of the nothingness that lies outside of life and activity. Notice that it was only in the graveyard, as Jack was faced with the figures of the dead, that there was no mentioned of the white noise in Jack’s surroundings (DeLillo 71). White noise, in this sense, serves as a reminder of death. It is the sound that one hears before one encounters the death of one’s own body. In conjunction to the continuous technological developments in our world, white noise is a sound of reckoning for the possible end of the world itself. In both Albee’s play and DeLillo’s novel, one notes that both texts discuss certain universal themes. Albee’s play revolves around the theme of a country’s dream. DeLillo’s novel, on the other hand, revolves around the theme of death. Both of these are universal themes as they represent certain aspects of human experience that resounds throughout time. The relationship between literature, history, and human beings is thereby apparent in both texts as they themselves present an author’s view regarding a universal theme, one which will be experienced by all human beings throughout the existence of our race. Due to its universal character, these themes, and hence both texts which are grounded on these themes, will be interpreted in different ways by all those who will read them. Human consciousness thereby determines the meaning of a work as an author and a reader associates meanings to a work’s form and content. The universal themes of all literary works provide all human beings, regardless of the spatiotemporal conditions during their existence, with a common ground for understanding literary texts. It is partially due to these universal themes that the members of the current generation are able to find a connection with the works of authors who belong to a different generation. These themes however have been reinterpreted in line with the current generation’s experiences and conception of reality. This can be seen in Frosts’ â€Å"Stopping by Woods on a Rainy Evening† and Jacoby’s â€Å"The Diner. † In Frosts’ poem, one is presented with the theme of death as the poem’s persona ponders on the mysteries associated with it. He states, â€Å"The woods are lovely, dark, and deep.? But I have promises to keep, ? And miles to go before I sleep† (Poe). The persona, in this sense, attempts to ward off thoughts of death since he recognizes that life has a lot more experiences in store for him. Although Poe wrote this poem in the 1920’s, its theme continues to be found in contemporary works as can be seen in Jacoby’s â€Å"The Diner. † In the text, Jacoby speaks of another form of death, one that has been brought about by the artificial reality enabled by technological innovations. He claims, â€Å"Bright bright city lights†¦? I’ll take your pale and shadowed glow,? Whatever half-light path you show†¦? I feel so close to those in here, ? I share their loneliness and fear†¦? From the probing, searching nighttime† (Jacoby). In â€Å"The Diner,† the persona speaks of the death of human interaction caused by the alienating conditions in the modern world. In this world, although men are given the innovations that should have provided them with the chance to have longer periods of meaningful interaction with one another, the artificiality of their surroundings has led them to create artificial relationships with each other. The similarity of the theme of both Frost’s and Jacoby’s texts manifest how literature may serve as a tool for portraying similar themes whose meanings vary due to the new events and? or concepts which have been associated with it. Within this context, it is evident that all forms of literature are much more alike than disparate. Human consciousness has allowed the connection of all literary works as it has enabled the form of all literary texts to correspond with one another due to its relationship to the reader who continually participates in the active reinterpretation of literary works. As McEwan claims, â€Å"Literature flourishes along the channels of this unspoken agreement between writers and readers, offering a mental map whose north and south are the specific, and the general† (41). In this mental map, human minds throughout history interact in a dialectic dialogue with one another as they conceive, interpret, and reinterpret universal themes in literature. This dialogue allows the conception of literature as an art form that continually allows the creation of new worlds and new ways of perceiving reality. Works Cited â€Å"A Brief Guide to Imagism. † Poets. org: From the Academy of American Poets. n. d. Web. 15 May 2010. â€Å"A Brief Guide to Modernism. † Poets. org: From the Academy of American Poets. n. d. Web. 15 May 2010. Albee, Edward. The American Dream: and, The Zoo Story: Two Plays. New York: Plume, 1997. Print. DeLillo, Don. White Noise. New York: Penguin Books, 1985. Print. Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1996. Print. Frost, Robert. â€Å"Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening. † Poets. org: From the Academy of American Poets. n. d. Web. 15 May 2010. Gilman, Charlotte. â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† and Other Stories. London: Courier Dover, 1997. Print. Jacoby, Peter. â€Å"The Diner. † Prof. Peter R. Jacoby’s Spring 2010 Web Site. San Diego Mesa College. n. d. Web. 15 May 2010. McEwan, Ian. â€Å"Literature, Science and Human Nature. † Human Nature: Fact and Fiction. Eds. Robin Headlam and Johnjoe McFadden. New York: Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006. 40-62. Print. Murfin, Ross and Supryia Ray. The Bedford Glossary of Critical and Literary Terms. London: Bedford? St. Martin’s, 2009. Print.

Credit risks in financial markets prior to credit crisis The WritePass Journal

Credit risks in financial markets prior to credit crisis Introduction Credit risks in financial markets prior to credit crisis IntroductionCredit risks in financial marketsLiquidity risks in financial marketsExtreme uncertainty and volatility in financial marketsThe effect of the crisis and the way aheadConclusionRelated Introduction In the last 25 years, the world suffered boom-bust economical recycling .What impressed us was the serious financial crisis happened in 1930, however, the credit crunch in 2008 was even worse. It   crisis is the culmination of a super boom that has lasted for more than twenty-five years and seems a sign of the end of an era of credit expansion based on the dollar as the international reserve currency. It might be formed because of the bursting of the Internet bubble in late 2000.The Fed responded by cutting the federal funds rate from 6.5% to 3.5% within space of just a few months. Occasionally, came with the terrorist attack of September 11,2001.To counteract the disruption of the economy, the Fed continued to lower rates in half a century, where it stayed for a full year. For thirty-one consecutive months the base inflation-adjusted short-term interest rate was negative. These consequent activities remain the interest rate in a low level for years that the rational lender will ke ep on lending until there is no one else to lend to, when money is free, an explosion of leveraged buyouts, and other excesses became conventional. Meanwhile, an endangered supper housing bubble is growing silently. According to the national statistic in the U.S., from 2000 until mid-2005, the market value of existing homes grew by more than 50%, and there was a frenzy of new construction. A shocking discovery by Merrill was that about half of all American GDP growth in the first half of 2005 was housing related, either directly, through home building and housing-related purchases like new furniture, or indirectly, by spending the cash generated from the refinancing of mortgages. This means, starting around 2005, securitization became a mania. It was easy and fast to create â€Å"synthetic† securities that mimicked the risks of real securities but did not carry the expense of buying and assembling actual loans. Therefore, Risky paper could be multiplied well beyond the actual supply in the market. Conversely, this activity led to an enormous increase in the use of leverage. To hold ordinary bonds requires a margin of 10%; synthetic bonds created by credit default swaps can be traded on a margin of 1.5%. It turned to be an opportunity for those hedge funds to show good profits by exploiting risk differentials on a leveraged basis, driving down risk premiums. Credit risks in financial markets The story began in early 2007, signs of trouble started to multiply. On February 22, HSBC fired the head of its U.S mortgage lending business, recognizing losses reaching $10.8 billion. Later on, DR Horton, the biggest homebuilder, warned of losses from subprime mortgages on March 9. Three days after, New Century Financial, one of the biggest subprime lenders, had its shares suspended from trading amid fears that the company was headed for bankruptcy. Then it was reported that late payments on mortgages and home foreclosures rose to new highs. What`s more , Accredited Home Lenders Holding put up $2.7 billion of its subprime loan book for sale , on March 16, at a heavy discount to generate cash for business operations. Even worse on April 2, New Century Financial filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection after it was forced to repurchase billions of dollars which were worth of bad loans. The effects of sub-prime problems were gradually spread across banks around the world when many of the mortgages had been bundled up and sold on to banks and investors. In July, investment bank Bear Stearns tells investors they will get little, if any, of the money invested in two of its hedge funds after rival banks refuse to help it bail them out. On 9 August 2007, investment bank BNP Paribas tells investors they will not be able to take money out of two of its funds because it cannot value the assets in them, for an excuse of a complete evaporation of liquidity in the market. Obviously, banks are refusing to do business with each other. On June 15, 2007, two large mortgage hedge funds of Bears stern were having trouble meeting margin calls. To cope with this, Bear grudgingly created a $3.2 billion credit line to bail out one fund and let the other collapse which indicated that investors` equity of $1.5 billion was mostly wiped out. As late as July 2007, Bernanke still estimated subprime losses at only about $100 billion. When Merrill Lynch and Citigroup took big write-down on in-house collateralized debt obligations, the markets actually staged a relief rallyThe SP 500 hit a new high in mid-July. People release and think it naively finished. Somehow, it was only at the beginning of August that financial markets really took fright. Shockingly, Bear Stearns filed for bankruptcy protection for two hedge funds exposed to subprime loans and stopped clients from withdrawing cash from a third fund. Though it was useless, Bear Stearns had tried to save these entities by injecting $3.2 billion of additional funding. Liquidity risks in financial markets Everything that could go wrong, once the crisis erupted, financial markets unraveled with remarkable dramatically. Investment banks with large positions of CDOs to keep off balance sheet in so-called structured investment vehicles (SIVs). By issuing asset backed commercial paper, the investment banks financed their positions by SIVs. As the value of CDOs came into trouble, the asset-backed commercial paper market dried up, in order to keep the market liquid, the investment banks were forced to bail out their SIVs. Most investment banks took the SIVs into their balance sheet and surrendered to commit that large losses were in the process. Consequently, Investment banks were sitting on large loan commitments to finance leveraged buyouts. Normally, they would package these loans as collateralized loan obligations (CLOs) and sell them off, but the CLO market came to a standstill together with the CDO market, and the banks were left holding a bag worth about $250 billion. Some banks allow ed their SIVs to go bust, and some reneged on their leveraged buyout obligations. This, together with the size of the losses incurred by the banks, served to unnerve the stock market, and price movements became chaotic. So-called market-neutral hedge funds, which exploit small discrepancies in market prices by using very high leverage, ceased to be market neutral and incurred unusual losses. A few highly leveraged ones were wiped out, damaging the reputation of their sponsors and unleashing lawsuits. The banking system suffered all this pressures. They had to put additional items on their balance sheets at a time when their capital base was impaired by unexpected losses. Banks had difficulty assessing their exposure and even greater difficulties estimating the exposure of their counterparts. Similarly, they were reluctant to lend to each other and eager to save their liquidity. At the very beginning, central banks found it difficult to inject enough liquidity due to commercial banks avoiding used any of the facilities which had a responsible to attach them, and they were also ignored to deal with each other, meanwhile, these obstacles were overcome .After all, if there is one thing central banks know how to do, that is to provide liquidity. Only the Bank of England suffered a major debacle when it attempted to rescue Northern Rock, an overextended mortgage lender. Its rescue effort resulted in a run on the bank. Eventually Northern Rock was nationalized and its obligations added to the national debt, pushing the United Kingdom beyond the limits imposed by the Maastricht Treaty. Extreme uncertainty and volatility in financial markets The banking sector tended to filled with liquidity, however, the crisis refused to abate. Credit spreads continued to widen. Correlated that almost all the major banksCitigroup, Merrill Lynch, Lehman Brothers, Bank of America, Wachovia, UBS, Credit Suisseannounced major write-downs in the final quarter of the year, and most have signaled continued write-downs , separately, most others have signaled continued write-downs in 2008. Both AIG and Credit Suisse made preliminary fourth-quarter write-down announcements that they repeatedly revised, conveying the doubtless accurate impression that they had lost control of their balance sheets. A failed with   $7.2 billion trading at Societe Generale announced in January 2008, coincided with a selling climax in the stock market and an extraordinary 75 basis point cut in the federal funds rate eight days before the regularly scheduled meeting, when the rate was cut a further 50 basis points. This was unprecedented. Distress spread from residential real estate to credit card debt, auto debt, and commercial real estate. Trouble at the monocline insurance companies, which traditionally specialized in municipal bonds but ventured into insuring structured and synthetic products, caused the municipal bond market to be disrupted. With the intension of credit market, numourous of entities went bankruptcy. This called for large amount of compensation by the insurance companies.   No doubt that an even larger unresolved problem is looming in the credit default swaps market (CDSs). Changing in structure of financial landscape The effect of the crisis and the way ahead Over the past several decades the United States has weathered several major financial crises, like the international lending crisis of the 1980s and the savings and loan crisis of the early 1990s.But the current crisis is of an entirely different character. It has spread from one segment of the market to others, particularly those which employ newly created structured and synthetic instruments. Both the exposure and the capital base of the major financial institutions have been brought into question, and the uncertainties are likely to remain unresolved for an extended period of time. This is impeding the normal functioning of the financial system and is liable to have far-reaching consequences for the real economy. Conclusion Both the financial markets and the financial authorities have been very slow to recognize that the real economy is bound to be affected. It is hard to understand why this should be so. The real economy was stimulated by credit expansion. Why should it not be negatively affected by credit contraction? One cannot escape the conclusion that both the financial authorities and market participants harbor fundamental misconceptions about the way financial markets function. These misconceptions have manifested themselves not only in a failure to understand what is going on; they have given rise to the excesses which are at the root of the current market turmoil.

Investigate the various types of assessment, and how they impact the Design Technology classroom The WritePass Journal

Investigate the various types of assessment, and how they impact the Design Technology classroom Introduction Investigate the various types of assessment, and how they impact the Design Technology classroom IntroductionBibliography]Related Introduction In the essay I explore the contribution that assessment makes towards learning. I investigate the various types of assessment, and what impact they have on the learner, drawing upon my own experience in the Design Technology classroom. In particular, I review the summative and formative ways of assessing and conclude that formative assessment is more beneficial to the learner as they gain new knowledge and skills to inform their learning, with the feedback given through this process. Conversely, summative assessment can sometimes cause problems within the classroom as children try and ‘be the best’. To bring the essay to a close, I discuss ideas for the future regarding assessment in Design Technology and what I think should happen. The term ‘assessment’ â€Å"is how pupils recognise achievement and make progress, and how teachers shape and personalise their teaching.† (QCA, 2009) In the past assessment was â€Å"seen as something distinct from learning;† (Chater, 1984, p4) contrasting this view in a recent review on assessment Daugherty (2002) found it to be: One of the most powerful educational tools for promoting effective learning†¦ the focus needs to be on helping teachers use assessment, as part of teaching and learning, in ways that will raise pupils’ achievement. (Daugherty, 2002) Daugherty, a member of the Assessment Reform Group, is raising a well-founded point, as he is well researched into ‘assessment,’ making government policy but also works closely with teachers and local education authority staff to advance understanding of the roles, purposes and impacts of assessment. Teachers planning should include strategies to ensure that learners understand the goals they are pursuing and the criteria that will be applied in assessing their work. OFSTED reports can often be seen as biased and its independence questioned, being dubbed the â€Å"Governments ‘poodle’ during a Commons committee hearing† (Stewart, 2009) and inspections seen as an â€Å"instrument of state control† forcing teachers to follow politicians’ agendas.† (Shaw, 2009) Nevertheless, this report raises good points to be considered by teachers who strive to use assessment in their teaching, hence the citation. This type of on-going assessment described in the report is known as formative assessment. It is common for assessment to be divided into either formative or summative categories for the purpose of considering different objectives for assessment practices, although they can overlap. Summative assessment is generally carried out at the end of a course or project. In Design Technology, summative assessments are typically used to assign students an end of topic grade. Formative assessment is generally carried out throughout a course or project and is used to aid learning. Summative assessment is the assessment of learning and in Design Technology it provides evidence of student achievement for reporting and accountability purposes.   Its main purpose is to make judgements about performance. An example of this is the norm-referenced tests (NRT), which classifies students. NRTs draw attention to the achievement differences between and among students to produce a dependable rank order of students across a continuum of achievement from high achievers to low achievers (Stiggins, 1994). Schools use this system to place pupils in ability groups, including Gifted and Talented. However, it is argued that â€Å"Assessment should be a powerful tool for learning, not merely a political solution to perceived problems over standards and accountability.† (ATL, 1996) This is reinforcing Daugherty’s idea, as it perceives assessment as a tool, a working progress- formative assessment, not an end product- summative assessment. Formative assessment is Assessment for learning and in Design Technology it helps to inform the teaching and learning process by identifying students’ strengths and weaknesses.   Its main purpose is to gather information. Diagnostic assessment, which helps to identify specific learning strengths and needs, can fall into both categories. It determines learning targets and appropriate teaching and learning strategies to achieve them. This is important because: Many learners have higher-level skills in some areas than in others. Diagnostic assessment happens initially at the beginning of a learning programme and subsequently when the need arises. (QIA, 2008) Therefore; it can be summative, as it results in a grade and the student is placed in an ability group on what they already know. However, this â€Å"information is used to make links to progression routes and prepare for the next steps;† (QIA, 2008) thus becomes formative, as they discover the gaps in their knowledge and learn how to fill these gaps. A type of formative assessment is a criterion-referenced test which determines, â€Å"what test takers can do and what they know, not how they compare to others.† (Anastasi, 1988, p102) Assessment for Learning ensures that pupils understand what they can do, but are also informed how to improve on what they find difficult, and what type of learning process they must take to achieve this. This formative assessment: Forms the direction of future learning and so the requirement of formative assessment is that the feedback given back to the learner helps the learner improve, but more importantly that the learner actually uses that information to improve. (Marshall, 2002, p48) Feedback for learning in Design Technology is vital. The teacher will take pleasure in rewarding students with praises; however, there is more valuable feedback that they should receive, as Black Wiliam found: Pupils look for the ways to obtain the best marks rather than at the needs of their learning which these marks ought to reflect†¦ They spend time and energy looking for clues to the ‘right answer’. (Black Wiliam, 1998) In Design Technology, a subject in which there is seldom a ‘right answer,’ it is essential that â€Å"we focus on promoting learning instead of encouraging students to seek the easiest way to get the best results.† (Branson, 2005, p76) This indicates that the summative assessment is preventing the student reaching their full potential through learning, as they want to be the best in the class; therefore, will rote learn and be ‘taught-to-the-test’ to achieve this top grade. This could mean that student is not learning, but remembering facts for the test, and once the test is over they will not retain much of the knowledge. Nevertheless, the summative results could be used as part of a formative assessment (Black Wiliam, 1998) if the correct feedback was given to them instead of just a grade. This feedback will only be effective if the quality of teacher-pupil interaction is high and provides, â€Å"the stimulus and help for pupils to take active responsibility for their own learning.†(Black Wiliam, 1998) To create effective feedback we must â€Å"teach less and talk about learning more.† (Branson, 2005, p77) This is known as meta-learning which draws upon goals, strategies, effects, feelings and context of learning, each of which has significant personal and social dimensions: Those who are advanced in meta-learning realise that what is learned (the outcome or the result) and how it is learned (the act or the process) are two inseparable aspects of learning. (Watkins, 2001) If students practise these skills they will be able evaluate work successfully, apply their assessment criteria to their work and their peers’ work. Through this greater understanding of their own learning, the students will have the â€Å"ability of the performance† (Marshall, 2002, p57) and be able to apply the knowledge and strategies they have acquired to various contexts, transferring their skills to suit the situation. Good day-to-day indications of students’ progress are tasks and questions that prompt learners to show their knowledge, skills and understanding. What learners say and do is then observed and interpreted, by teacher and peers, and judgements are made about how learning can be improved. These assessment processes are an important part of everyday classroom practice and involve both teachers and learners in reflection when talking about new targets. The questions posed should be open-ended, allowing the student to fully express themselves and ensuring that they will not ‘lose face,’ as there is not a right or wrong answer. If a student finds answering a question difficult, a peer can step in and help, which can have a positive effect on the class as there are â€Å"things that students will take from each other that they won’t take from a teacher.† (Marshall, 2002, p48) In turn, peer assessment helps develop self-assessment which promotes independent l earning, helping children to take increasing responsibility for their own progress. An example of good practice I have seen in an Design Technology classroom is ‘PEN marking’ Positive, Error, Next Time, in which students would pen mark their own work and assess each others work looking for two good aspects about the piece, and an improvement. This way the students are praising each other; therefore, they are not scared to suggest an improvement. Through assessing their peers work, they also find ways to improve their own. This is subjective as it is my own opinion, but does relate to what Marshall’s theory- that they will take from each other that they would not from a teacher, as several ‘wishes’ from the students sounded harsh but I found that in their next piece of work they had tried harder at it. However, the work may also have improved if the teacher had said it, so this theory is not infallible. The OFSTED report states that: Many pupils were still not clear about what their strengths and weaknesses were or how they might improve. (OFSTED, 2009, p14) Assessment for learning states that for effective learning to take place students need to understand what it is they are trying to achieve, and want to achieve it. Understanding and commitment follows when they have a part in deciding goals and identifying criteria for assessing progress. Communicating assessment criteria involves discussing them with the students using terms that they can understand, providing examples of how the criteria can be met in practice and engaging learners in peer and self-assessment.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I think the problem of pupils not being cle ar about their strengths and weaknesses can be solved with the introduction of Assessing Pupils’ Progress (APP) into schools. The school where I am doing my placement is using the APP process for the first time this year, and so far are finding it successful.   APP is a ‘systematic approach to periodic assessment that provides diagnostic information about individual pupils’ progress and management information about the attainment and progress of groups’. (DfCSF, 2008) A key purpose of APP is to inform and strengthen planning, teaching and learning. This aspect of APP can have a direct and positive impact on raising standards, and can assist in the personalisation of learning. Based on the assessment focuses (AFs) that underpin National Curriculum assessment, the APP approach improves the quality and reliability of teacher assessment. My school have simplified the APP focuses and levels into student speak so they can fully understand the concept and purpose. All students in KS3 are now fully aware that they will have an APP assessment in Design Technology at the end of every half term. The assessment will be based upon the scheme of work studied over the half term. For example the last assessment was to write a character description: the scheme studied being fiction. The Design Technology teacher has an expectation that every individual child should attain two sub-levels a year; the student is also aware of this. Before the student completed the final assessment they assessed a Character Description supplied by the teacher, using the same AF’s that they were going to be assessed on. This allowed the students to see exactly what they had to do to ach ieve a Level 5, as one pupil pointed out that, â€Å"Even though they’ve put their ideas together in order Miss, they haven’t used paragraphs so they can’t get a Level 5 for AF3†. This process of evaluation helps the student progress in their work, as they can see clearly what they have to do to improve. Ultimately, I think that the contribution of assessment has a huge impact on pupils’ learning; with well focused feedback, including thorough marking that identifies clear targets, students can progress and become independent learners, a foundation preparing for their independent life.   I think that APP alongside Assessment for Learning is a good way for the student and the teacher to gauge progress, as the objectives are clear, and the ways to achieve them are made obvious through ‘pupil speak’. This does not mean that I think summative is an incorrect way of assessment, as I echo the thoughts of Black Wiliam (1998) in that if a summative assessment is used to inform the student for progression then it can have a positive effect. When I start NQT year, I hope to be employed in a school that uses APP, and if not I will try and implement it, as I think it benefits students as much as it does the teacher. Bibliography] Anastasi, A. (1988). Psychological Testing. New York, New York: MacMillan Publishing Company Association of Teachers and Lecturers. (1996). Doing our Level Best. Black, P. and Wiliam, D. (1998) Inside the Black Box: Raising Standards through Classroom Assessment, Kings College London. [Online] Available from: www.kcl.ac.uk/education/publications/Black%20Box.pdf [Accessed 20th October 2009] Branson, J. (2005) ‘Assessment, recording and reporting’. In: Goodwyn, A Branson, J. (eds). Teaching English: A Handbook for Primary and Secondary School Teachers. London: Routledge. Chater, P. (1984) Marking Assessment in English. London: Methuen Co Ltd. Daugherty R. (2002) Assessing for learning insides. [Online] 2002. Available from: assessment-reform-group.org/AssessInsides.pdf [Accessed 21st October 2009] DfCSF. (2008) Assessing Pupils Progress (APP) In English. [Online] Aug 2008. Available from: http://nationalstrategies.standards.dcsf.gov.uk/node/16051?uc=force_deep [Accessed 21st October 2009] Marshall, B. (2002) ‘Thinking through Assessment: An Interview with Dylan Wiliam’. English in Education, 36 (3) p47-60. OFSTED. (2009) English at the crossroads. London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office. QCA. (2005) A national conversation on the future of English. [Online]. 2005. Available from: qcda.gov.uk/libraryAssets/media/qca-05-1835-playback-web.pdf [Accessed 21st October 2009] QCA. (2009) Assessment key principles- National Curriculum. [Online]. June 2009. Available from: http://curriculum.qcda.gov.uk/key-stages-3-and-4/assessment/Assessment-key-principles/index.aspx?return=/key-stages-3-and-4/assessment/index.aspx   [Accessed: 20th October 2009] QIA. (2008) Initial and diagnostic assessment: a learner- centred process. [Online] 2008. Available from sfl-sw.org.uk/userfiles/files/Initial%2520and%2520Diagnostic%2520assessment%2520a%2520learner-centred%2520process.pdf [Accessed 21st October 2009] Scriven, M. (1991). Evaluation thesaurus. 4th ed. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Shaw, M. 2009. ‘Ofsted inspections are means of state control’. Times Educational Supplement, 15 March. p.7 Stiggins, R.J. (1994). Student-Centered Classroom Assessment. New York: Merrill. Watkins, C. (2001) ‘Learning about Learning Enhances Performance’ in National School Improvement Network Research Matters 13, London: Institute of Education. William, S. (2009) ‘Ofsted accused of being ministerial poodle over school report cards’. Times Educational Supplement, 10 July. p.33

Assess the View That Traditional Class Identities

These groups are the working class, middle class and upper class. However now some believe there isn’t this social class division within society and that everyone is equal. People that would agree traditional class identities are no longer important are postmodernists. These have the view that class no longer really matters in modern Britain and that now people no longer identify themselves according to their class background. Clarke and Saunders (1991) would agree with the view of postmodernists. They suggest that classes have become fragmented into many different groups and now they have been replaced with other influences such as gender and lifestyles. Although they is some evidence which suggests these ideas are exaggerated. Marshall’s survey into how people view themselves showed people still see social class as a source of identity. The traditional working class was a group of people that was developed after the industrialisation when they were need for large amounts of manual workers. This group formed a strong sense on culture and identity. These were strong moral values, having men as the breadwinner and women as housewives and believing getting a job is more important than having an education. The traditional working class also saw the labour party as the party for the working class as it represented their interests, as pointed out in item B. Although now many people in the working class vote for different parties as they don’t all agree on what is important now in society, supporting the idea that traditional class identities are no longer important. Now also the manufacturing business as changed a lot, this means now they aren’t the same jobs available as they would have been before as they have been replaced with things such as machines that can do a faster and cheaper job. Therefore the working class has had to change the sort of jobs they do over time which may be a reason for the change in characteristics, and therefore making the traditional class identities now no longer important. Diamond and Giddens agree with this as they argue that the working class is no longer important because of the change in the economy that as lead to the decline of manual labour jobs, and that the working class isn’t now the only class which experiences economic and social eprivation. The new working class is now seen to have little loyalty to others within the same class, more emphasis on customer goods, high levels of home ownership, and women likely to be employed. There is also now a larger section of the working class, this may be down to some working class jobs now becoming more skilful therefore getting higher pay, which others become less skilful and get lower pay, meaning people in the same class may identify themselves every differently. However there are sociologists that believe traditional class identities are still very important, for example Marxists. They believe social class is still hugely influential in shaping our identities. They also believe social class is identified by your income, and that leisure wouldn’t define your identity as you would need the disposable income to afford it. The British Attitudes Survey supported this idea, because in 2007 it found still 94% of people still identified themselves with a social class, whereas only 6% didn’t. Overall the importance of traditional class identities are seen every differently by different people. Views which agree and disagree to the importance of traditional class identities still being important have both positives and negatives so it’s hard to just believe one view point is the truth and the other doesn’t matter. Therefore I believe both viewpoints have sufficient evidence and that traditional class identities are still important to an extent, however now there is also other factors that can make up our identity other than just our social class. Assess the View That Traditional Class Identities These groups are the working class, middle class and upper class. However now some believe there isn’t this social class division within society and that everyone is equal. People that would agree traditional class identities are no longer important are postmodernists. These have the view that class no longer really matters in modern Britain and that now people no longer identify themselves according to their class background. Clarke and Saunders (1991) would agree with the view of postmodernists. They suggest that classes have become fragmented into many different groups and now they have been replaced with other influences such as gender and lifestyles. Although they is some evidence which suggests these ideas are exaggerated. Marshall’s survey into how people view themselves showed people still see social class as a source of identity. The traditional working class was a group of people that was developed after the industrialisation when they were need for large amounts of manual workers. This group formed a strong sense on culture and identity. These were strong moral values, having men as the breadwinner and women as housewives and believing getting a job is more important than having an education. The traditional working class also saw the labour party as the party for the working class as it represented their interests, as pointed out in item B. Although now many people in the working class vote for different parties as they don’t all agree on what is important now in society, supporting the idea that traditional class identities are no longer important. Now also the manufacturing business as changed a lot, this means now they aren’t the same jobs available as they would have been before as they have been replaced with things such as machines that can do a faster and cheaper job. Therefore the working class has had to change the sort of jobs they do over time which may be a reason for the change in characteristics, and therefore making the traditional class identities now no longer important. Diamond and Giddens agree with this as they argue that the working class is no longer important because of the change in the economy that as lead to the decline of manual labour jobs, and that the working class isn’t now the only class which experiences economic and social eprivation. The new working class is now seen to have little loyalty to others within the same class, more emphasis on customer goods, high levels of home ownership, and women likely to be employed. There is also now a larger section of the working class, this may be down to some working class jobs now becoming more skilful therefore getting higher pay, which others become less skilful and get lower pay, meaning people in the same class may identify themselves every differently. However there are sociologists that believe traditional class identities are still very important, for example Marxists. They believe social class is still hugely influential in shaping our identities. They also believe social class is identified by your income, and that leisure wouldn’t define your identity as you would need the disposable income to afford it. The British Attitudes Survey supported this idea, because in 2007 it found still 94% of people still identified themselves with a social class, whereas only 6% didn’t. Overall the importance of traditional class identities are seen every differently by different people. Views which agree and disagree to the importance of traditional class identities still being important have both positives and negatives so it’s hard to just believe one view point is the truth and the other doesn’t matter. Therefore I believe both viewpoints have sufficient evidence and that traditional class identities are still important to an extent, however now there is also other factors that can make up our identity other than just our social class.

Researching A Hindu Saint Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Researching A Hindu Saint - Essay Example Referring to the Bhagavad Gita, he has made use of the Yogas and Vedantas in order to help people understand the importance and implementation of the major themes namely Karma Yoga, Bhakti Yoga and Jnana Yoga. (Vivekananda Kendra) Vivekananda was born in Calcutta on 12th January, 1863 to a Bengali Kayastha family and his birth name was Narendra Nath Datta. He was influenced greatly by both his parents; his father helped him to inculcate within him a sense of logical thinking equipped with rationality whereas his mother assisted him on thinking along the lines of religious spirituality. His guru Ramakrishna also played a major role in his life by teaching him about the faith and service that a man devotes to God and how this service is the same in all religions to all Gods. Swami Vivekananda also was heavily influenced by the teachings in the Bhagavad Gita and remarked on an allegory of the war taking place on the battlefield of Kurukshetra. He stated that the war was a metaphor of th e war that is constantly raging within the mind of a human being with respect to good and evil and what he should give in to. In 1881, Vivekananda experienced a turning point in his life as he met Ramakrishna; it is surprising to note that at first he revolted against all of the ideas of the guru and did not accept him as his senior; he had his own views regarding spirituality and did not believe in Ramakrishna’s vision. However, during the course of studying for five years under him, he began to accept his views and became a man ready to renounce the world in order to understand the realization a man achieves by being close to God. When Ramakrishna began suffering from throat cancer, Vivekananda formed a monastic group of which he was a part of and was given the duty to look after all the other disciples and take forward his teachings. From 1888 to 1893 Vivekananda wandered all over India as a monk with nothing but a pot of water and the robes on his back. He carried with hi m a copy of the Imitation of the Christ and the Bhagavad Gita and during the course of this journey he was able to understand people from different walks of life as he stayed with, and interacted with all kinds of people from all over the country. (Sri Ramakrishna and Swami Vivekananda) After 1893, Vivekananda began travelling abroad with his first visit to Japan. He was very impressed by the cleanliness in the Japanese lifestyle; both in their way of living as well as their attitude. From there on, he visited Chicago where he was taken to the Parliament of World Religions by Prof. John Henry Wright of Harvard University. Vivekananda has hosted several lectures on his tours across England and America and after coming back to India, founded the Ramakrishna Mission all over the country where young learners are taught about the Gita as well as other world religions with emphasis on Hinduism. He has tried to keep Ramakrishna’s message and vision alive by spreading the word about God and self-realization. The essence of his teachings has best been described through a Vedanta philosophy of the soul as potentially divine. He is also considered to be a social reformer as he worked to help the poor and made provisions of providing them with food, shelter as well as knowledge through the Ramakrishna Missions set up throughout the country. The Bhagavad Gita is a 700 verse discourse in Sanskrit, a part of the Sanskrit epic titled the Mahabharata written by Valmiki. Also

Accounting Theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Accounting Theory - Essay Example Laan (2009) argues that the two theories namely Stakeholder and Legitimacy, derived from the broader political economy perspective, broadly explain motivations for social disclosures. The paper aims at exploring whether the main motivation to corporations for social and environmental reporting is to enhance their corporate image and credibility with stakeholders. While a few decades back, corporations sole aim remained enhancing shareholder value in financial terms and report them as per the statutory norms, organisations have now moved beyond traditional financial reporting of their performance to its stakeholders. Currently, stakeholders group not merely constitute shareholders, employees, suppliers, creditors, customers but they also include society, community and all those who are affected by the operations of the organization. Corporate social reporting thus, has occupied a wider perspective. Stakeholder theory prescribes that all stakeholders including primary and secondary have the right to expect fair treatment from an organisation. That is to say management needs to manage the corporation such that interests of all stakeholders are secured. Community or Society at large may not be directly engaged in transactions with the corporation yet they are influenced and affected by the activities of corporations such as emission levels, waste water creation and its treatment, impact on ecology or surroundings and so on. Ethical branch of stakeholder theory also necessitates that community and society not only have a right to know how they are affected or impacted in the long run from the activities of corporations but also they expect that they must be treated fairly by corporation. At the same time, managerial branch of stakeholder theory explains that organisations prefer to provide social and environmental reporting when they believe that it is in their

Business and society. Critically analyze Joel Bakans argument in the Essay

Business and society. Critically analyze Joel Bakans argument in the book The Corporation - Essay Example by corporations include polluting and poisoning the environment, making people work like slaves by extending minimal wages, colluding with non-democratic and corrupt state governments to manipulate things in their way, using mafia to silence the voices of opposition. Bakan goes on to propose a range of reforms that could restore the real power back to the people. In The Corporation, Bakan introduces corporations as the instruments of evil and corruption, which could be tamed and restrained by pursuing a range of reforms. In the Chapter One, Bakan goes on to elaborate on the origins of the corporation in a historical perspective. The essence of Bakan’s argument is that in the hope of developing public infrastructure, the nations like the US and the UK allowed the corporations to own minimum liability while carrying on their work. This power of minimum liability extended to the corporations was further protected by bringing in the laws that supported and protected corporations. At a local level, the state governments and the courts of law supported and created legal instruments that protected corporations, to attract corporate investment. With the passage of time, these corporations evolved into organic concepts that exerted immense and uncontrollable power over the shareholders and the masses. Besides, the separation of ownership and control by extending shares to the shareholders allowed the corporations to carry on their business with much less control and restraint. The limited liability gr anted to the corporation was not only protected by the law, but also flowed out of the immense wealth owned by the corporations. Gradually, corporations evolved into self sustaining entities, which had the power to influence the society, but were independent of the society in their working. In Chapter Two to Five, Bakan unravels the harm caused to the society by the corporations in the form of environmental pollution, exploitation of the labor and manipulation of the laws